This article analyzes the oil factor in contemporary Indonesian-Saudi relations and their transformation from a trade partnership to a comprehensive strategic partnership. It examines the historical background to energy cooperation, Indonesia’s changing role in the global oil market from net exporter to net importer, and Saudi Arabia’s growing importance as a key hydrocarbon supplier. Particular attention is paid to the impact of global crises (coronavirus pandemic 2020-2023, escalation of the Ukrainian crisis in 2022), investment projects in oil refining, and expanding cooperation in new energy technologies. The construction of Nusantara (the new capital of Indonesia), the creation of a joint venture for the production of blue hydrogen based on deposits in East Kalimantan, and research in the field of carbon capture and storage can be counted among the most significant investment areas today. The phenomenon of Hajj diplomacy is explored as a specific trust-building tool that facilitates the implementation of energy initiatives by establishing contacts in the religious sphere and organizing pilgrimage processes to Mecca and Medina. The role of personal factors and informal diplomacy in the development of bilateral relations is also analyzed. Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman, P. Subianto, A. Hartarto and representatives of national energy companies – Saudi Aramco and Pertamina – play an important role in the framework of personal diplomacy. The conclusion is that the combination of religious, economic, and geoenergetic components forms a unique model of interaction between Saudi Arabia and Indonesia, ensuring the sustainability of cooperation amid the global transformation of the energy market.

This article analyzes the development of regional energy integration within the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). It investigates the strategic drivers behind this process, including rising energy demand, external supply dependence, and the dual objectives of enhancing security and promoting decarbonization. The study focuses on the institutional framework provided by the ASEAN Plan of Action for Energy Cooperation (APAEC) and its practical implementation through two critical infrastructure initiatives: the ASEAN Power Grid (APG) and the Trans-ASEAN Gas Pipeline (TAGP). Using a typology of market integration stages, the paper assesses ASEAN’s shift from bilateral arrangements toward multilateral mechanisms. The analysis identifies a set of interrelated political, technical, and institutional conditions necessary for deeper integration. It also highlights persistent barriers, such as regula- tory fragmentation, infrastructure financing challenges, and risks related to national sovereignty. The article argues that, despite notable progress, the establishment of a fully integrated regional energy market will depend on overcoming significant systemic constraints through improved policy coordination.

Persistent geopolitical instability and volatility in global markets over the past decade have led to a weakening of globalization processes. As a result, regional formats of cooperation have come to the forefront, enabling participating countries to better cope with current challenges. BRICS is an example of a successful platform for regional cooperation. Trade within the union has grown significantly over the period of its existence. The article provides a detailed examination of the trade structure of the member states. The aim of the study is to analyse the dynamics and commodity structure of the external and intra-bloc trade of the BRICS countries and to assess the transformation of their positions in global trade flows. Based on statistical data for 2020–2024, the paper presents a quantitative and qualitative assessment of export and import volumes, key directions of trade flows, and the degree of their diversification. Particular attention is paid to trade in high-tech goods and products with high value added as a factor in strengthening the competitiveness of BRICS in the global market. The article also examines the share of the commodity sector in BRICS trade and how it shapes the stability of export revenues and the bloc’s integration into the global economy. As BRICS increases its share in global trade and expands its membership, the bloc becomes more cohesive, and trade flows between its members are distributed more evenly. These findings clarify the prospects for deeper trade and economic cooperation within BRICS and outline how national trade strategies can be further adapted to the new conditions of the world economy.

The article examines the key problems and prospects of Russian–Georgian cooperation in the energy sector. It is established that, despite the absence of diplomatic relations, Georgia and Russia demonstrate a positive dynamic in the development of economic ties, most visibly manifested in the energy domain. The development of bilateral cooperation is based on a model of functional autonomy, within which economic partnership is not linked to political decisions. The study explores the specific features of bilateral interaction in electric power communications, as well as in the supply of natural gas, crude oil, and petroleum products. Special attention is paid to the presence of Russian capital in Georgia’s energy infrastructures. The analysis shows that amid growing demand for energy resources, Georgia not only expands domestic production but also develops external energy communications, within which Russia’s share displays a trend of steady growth. The article outlines the operational characteristics of such key energy infrastructures as the Kavkasioni transmission line, the Enguri HPP, and the North Caucasus–Transcaucasia gas pipeline, among others. Building on the analysis, the authors conclude that the Russian Federation’s presence in Georgia’s energy sector is systemic in nature. Drawing on this, they go on to examine prospects for deepening the Russian-Georgian energy dialogue in light of the commissioning of Georgia’s first oil refinery in Kulevi. In the broader context of shifting power balances in the South Caucasus, this partnership offers Russia a lever of indirect influence through control over the regional energy market, while providing Georgia with a tool to bolster its own energy security without expanding engagement on the political track.

Central Asia is increasingly affected by climate change, requiring public admin- istration systems to demonstrate not only adaptability but also strategic resilience. This article analyzes the institutional transformations in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Uzbekistan within the framework of low-carbon development objectives. The study identifies common reform trajectories including the strengthening of strategic planning, development of climate finance mechanisms, and digitalization of emissions monitoring systems. These include Kazakhstan’s market-oriented model, which oper- ates through an emissions trading system; Kyrgyzstan’s hybrid model, which combines market and administrative instruments; and Uzbekistan’s centralized model, which relies on public-private partnerships. Climate policy in other countries in the region is either focused on small-scale renewable energy projects (Turkmenistan) or is in the process of its formation (Tajikistan). Broad reform priorities include strengthening strategic planning, expanding climate finance, and digitalizing monitoring systems. The author proposes a model of institutional flexibility based on four levels of adapta- tion: normative (adopting strategies and formalizing commitments), organizational (creating agencies and maintaining reports), financial (opening funds and launching emission trading systems), and communicative (data transparency).

In 2022, Belarus came under harsh Western sanctions and the closure of borders by the EU. The republic has an export-oriented economy. She was faced with the need for a partial reorientation of trade and economic cooperation, transport and logistics routes. The article examines the dynamics of the country’s economic cooperation with the CIS member states as one of the such a reorientation directions. It notes that the degree of interest of CIS countries in partnership with Belarus, its scope, and intensity largely depend on the countries’ interest and the availability of financial support for the proposed projects. This aspect, in turn, has a direct impact on the intensity of trade, investment interactions, and industrial cooperation ties. The dynamics of trade and investment cooperation has been studied. The directions of economic cooperation with the largest CIS partners – Russia, Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan – are considered. High level of cooperation activity with these countries is determined by the fact that they face similar challenges in economic, technological, and transport and logistics development within the Eurasian region. Close contacts with Russia are ensured by working within the Union State format, as well as access to Russian institutional and transport infrastructure. However, the potential for further development is limited by Belarus’s interest in restoring ties with Ukraine and the European Union. Meanwhile, partnerships with Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan are developing in the transportation sector, as well as trade in food products, timber and timber products, and petroleum products. The article concludes that trade relations with CIS countries play a stabilizing role for the Belarusian economy in the face of growing geoeconomic challenges.

Economic growth across the post-Soviet space in 2025 remained uneven and fragmented, largely due to the slowdown of the Russian economy and ongoing geopolitical turbulence. The past year consolidated the key trajectories of the region’s economic development. Foreign trade (parallel imports included), cross-border remittances, government financing, and logistics development remain as the main sources of economic growth in the region. The decline in their impact is due to adaptation to new conditions and the stabilization of trade flows. Stabilization in external sector indicates that the transformation of trade and logistics flows has reached completion, and the effects of their reorientation have largely run their course. Tight monetary policy constrained domestic demand and expanded import substitution strategies within the Russian segment. Geopolitical shifts in the South Caucasus reshaped the geography of foreign trade, reflecting a reorientation toward new markets and fluctuations in global energy prices. Meanwhile, deepening regional integration and a stronger collective identity in Central Asia generated new opportunities for its evolution as Eurasia’s trade and logistics hub, alongside intensified competition among external actors seeking dominance through investment and trade policy engagement. Risk factors for the region’s further development include a possible increase in sanctions pressure, continued high-tech imports restrictions, exchange rate volatility, and domestic political instability in several countries. At the same time, economic cooperation formats represented by the EAEU and the CIS and the adaptability of the region’s states economies contribute to moderately positive development trends in the medium term.

In the context of globalization of the world economy and deepening uncertainty, international migration processes are acquiring an increasingly complex and multi- faceted nature, exerting a significant impact on the socio-economic, political, and demographic dimensions of all participants in the global economy. Over the past decade, the world has witnessed a substantial increase in the number of international migrants, driven by a range of economic factors (socio-economic inequality, income disparities, unemployment, poverty, etc.) and non-economic factors (armed conflicts, climate change, and others) that shape the direction, character, and dynamics of international migration flows. The growing scale of migration and contemporary trends in migratory movements (globalization and regionalization, differentiation and segmentation, feminization, efficiency and digitalization) necessitate a thorough reconsideration of the theoretical foundations for studying and regulating this phenomenon. In this regard, the systematization, comprehensiveness, and critical analysis of existing theoretical approaches – from classical models (E. Lee, A. Lewis, M. Piore, I. Wallerstein, D. Massey) to modern institutional and network concepts (G. Schiller, H. de Haas, J. Attali, S. Moriconi, R. al-Hashmi) – are acquiring particular relevance. The analysis identifies current trends in migration processes and the multidimensional nature of the changes unfolding within them as contributing to the full-fledged conceptualization of international migration and its theory – previously treated as part of demographic processes – as a distinct and significant element in the restructuring of global social reality.